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COMICS

Comics is a medium used to express ideas via images, often combined with text or other visual information. Comics frequently takes the form of juxtaposed sequences of panels of images. Often textual devices such as speech balloons, captions, and onomatopoeia indicate dialogue, narration, sound effects, or other information. Size and arrangement of panels contribute to narrative pacing. Cartooning and similar forms of illustration are the most common image-making means in comics; fumetti is a form which uses photographic images. Common forms of comics include comic strips, editorial and gag cartoons, and comic books. Since the late 20th century, bound volumes such as graphic novels, comics albums, and tankōbon have become increasingly common, and online webcomics have proliferated in the 21st century.
Comics has had a lowbrow reputation for much of its history, but towards the end of the 20th century began to find greater acceptance with the public and within academia. The English term comics derives from the humorous work which predominated in early American newspaper comic strips; usage of the term has become standard also for non-humorous works. It is common in English to refer to the comics of different cultures by the terms used in their original languages, such as manga for Japanese comics, or bandes dessinées for French-language comics. There is no consensus amongst theorists and historians on a definition of comics; some emphasize the combination of images and text, some sequentiality or other image relations, and others historical aspects such as mass reproduction or the use of recurring characters. The increasing cross-pollination of concepts from different comics cultures and eras has further made defining the medium difficult.
Contents 1 Origins and traditions 1.1 English-language comics 1.2 Franco-Belgian and European comics 1.3 Japanese comics 2 Forms and formats 3 Comics studies 4 Vocabulary and idioms 4.1 Etymology 5 See also 5.1 See also lists 6 Notes 7 References 7.1 Works cited 7.1.1 Books 7.1.2 Academic journals 7.1.3 Web 8 Further reading 9 External links Origins and traditions Main articles: History of comics and List of comics by country Early examples of comics
Histoire de Monsieur Cryptogame Rodolphe Töpffer, 1830

The Yellow Kid R. F. Outcault, 1898
Outside of these genealogies, comics theorists and historians have seen precedents for comics in the Lascaux cave paintings in France , Egyptian hieroglyphs, Trajan's Column in Rome, the 11th-century Norman Bayeux Tapestry, the 1370 bois Protat woodcut, the 15th-century Ars moriendi and block books, Michelangelo's The Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel, and William Hogarth's 17th-century sequential engravings, amongst others.
Theorists debate whether the Bayeux Tapestry is a precursor to comics. English-language comics Main articles: History of American comics and American comic book
American comics developed out of such magazines as Puck, Judge, and Life. The success of illustrated humour supplements in the New York World and later the New York American, particularly Outcault's The Yellow Kid, led to the development of newspaper comic strips. Early Sunday strips were full-page and often in colour. Between 1896 and 1901 cartoonists experimented with sequentiality, movement, and speech balloons. Shorter, black-and-white daily strips began to appear early in the 20th century, and became established in newspapers after the success in 1907 of Bud Fisher's Mutt and Jeff. Humour strips predominated at first, and in the 1920s and 1930s strips with continuing stories in genres such as adventure and drama also became popular. Thin periodicals called comic books appeared in the 1930s, at first reprinting newspaper comic strips; by the end of the decade, original content began to dominate. The success in 1938 of Action Comics and its lead hero Superman marked the beginning of the Golden Age of Comic Books, in which the superhero genre was prominent.
Superheroes have been a staple of American comic books " title="Flame ">The Flame by Will Eisner).
Comics in the US has had a lowbrow reputation stemming from its roots in mass culture; cultural elites sometimes saw popular culture as threatening culture and society. In the latter half of the 20th century, popular culture won greater acceptance, and the lines between "high" and "low" culture began to blur. Comics, however, continued to be stigmatized, as the medium was seen as entertainment for children and illiterates.
The francophone Swiss Rodolphe Töpffer produced comic strips beginning in 1827, and published theories behind the form. Cartoons appeared widely in newspapers and magazines from the 19th century. The success of Zig et Puce in 1925 popularized the use of speech balloons in European comics, after which Franco-Belgian comics began to dominate. The Adventures of Tintin, with its signature clear line style, was first serialized in newspaper comics supplements beginning in 1929, and became an icon of Franco-Belgian comics.
In the 1960s, the term bandes dessinées came into wide use in French to denote the medium. Cartoonists began creating comics for mature audiences, and the term "Ninth Art" was coined, as comics began to attract public and academic attention as an artform. A group including René Goscinny and Albert Uderzo founded the magazine Pilote in 1959 to give artists greater freedom over their work. Goscinny and Uderzo's The Adventures of Asterix appeared in it and went on to become the best-selling French-language comics series. From 1960, the satirical and taboo-breaking Hara-Kiri defied censorship laws in the countercultural spirit that led to the May 1968 events.
From the 1980s, mainstream sensibilities were reasserted and serialization became less common as the number of comics magazines decreased and many comics began to be published directly as albums. Smaller publishers such as L'Association that published longer works in non-traditional formats by auteur-istic creators also became common. Since the 1990s, mergers resulted in fewer large publishers, while smaller publishers proliferated. Sales overall continued to grow despite the trend towards a shrinking print market.
Japanese comics Main article: History of manga Rakuten Kitazawa's created the first modern Japanese comic strip. 1902)
Illustrated magazines for Western expatriates introduced Western-style satirical cartoons to Japan in the late 19th century. New publications in both the Western and Japanese styles became popular, and at the end of the 1890s, American-style newspaper comics supplements began to appear in Japan, as well as some American comic strips. 1900 saw the debut of the Jiji Manga in the Jiji Shinpō newspaper—the first use of the word "manga" in its modern sense, and where, in 1902, Rakuten Kitazawa began the first modern Japanese comic strip. By the 1930s, comic strips were serialized in large-circulation monthly girls' and boys' magazine and collected into hardback volumes.
Comic strips are generally short, multipanel comics that traditionally most commonly appeared in newspapers. In the US, daily strips have normally occupied a single tier, while Sunday strips have been given multiple tiers. In the early 20th century, daily strips were typically in black-and-white and Sundays were usually in colour and often occupied a full page.
Book-length comics take different forms in different cultures. European comics albums are most commonly printed in A4-size colour volumes. In English-speaking countries, bound volumes of comics are called graphic novels and are available in various formats. Despite incorporating the term "novel"—a term normally associated with fiction—"graphic novel" also refers to non-fiction and collections of short works. Japanese comics are collected in volumes called tankōbon following magazine serialization.
Webcomics are comics that are available on the internet. They are able to reach large audiences, and new readers usually can access archived installments. Webcomics can make use of an infinite canvas—meaning they are not constrained by size or dimensions of a page.
"Comics ... are sometimes four-legged and sometimes two-legged and sometimes fly and sometimes don't ... to employ a metaphor as mixed as the medium itself, defining comics entails cutting a Gordian-knotted enigma wrapped in a mystery ..."
R. C. Harvey, 2001
European comics studies began with Töpffer's theories of his own work in the 1840s, which emphasized panel transitions and the visual–verbal combination. No further progress was made until the 1970s. Pierre Fresnault-Deruelle then took a semiotics approach to the study of comics, analyzing text–image relations, page-level image relations, and image discontinuities, or what Scott McCloud later dubbed "closure". In 1987, Henri Vanlier introduced the term multicadre, or "multiframe", to refer to the comics a page as a semantic unit. By the 1990s, theorists such as Benoît Peeters and Thierry Groensteen turned attention to artists' poïetic creative choices. Thierry Smolderen and Harry Morgan have held relativistic views of the definition of comics, a medium that has taken various, equally valid forms over its history. Morgan sees comics as a subset of "les littératures dessinées" . French theory has come to give special attention to the page, in distinction from American theories such as McCloud's which focus on panel-to-panel transitions. Since the mid-2000s, Neil Cohn has begun analyzing how comics are understood using tools from cognitive science, extending beyond theory by using actual psychological and neuroscience experiments. This work has argued that sequential images and page layouts both use separate rule-bound "grammars" to be understood that extend beyond panel-to-panel transitions and categorical distinctions of types of layouts, and that the brain's comprehension of comics is similar to comprehending other domains, such as language and music.
Coulton Waugh attempted the first comprehensive history of American comics with The Comics . Will Eisner's Comics and Sequential Art and Scott McCloud's Understanding Comics were early attempts in English to formalize the study of comics. David Carrier's The Aesthetics of Comics was the first full-length treatment of comics from a philosophical perspective. Prominent American attempts at definitions of comics include Eisner's, McCloud's, and Harvey's. Eisner described what he called "sequential art" as "the arrangement of pictures or images and words to narrate a story or dramatize an idea"; Scott McCloud defined comics "juxtaposed pictorial and other images in deliberate sequence, intended to convey information and/or to produce an aesthetic response in the viewer", a strictly formal definition which detached comics from its historical and cultural trappings. R. C. Harvey defined comics as "pictorial narratives or expositions in which words usually contribute to the meaning of the pictures and vice versa". Each definition has had its detractors. Harvey saw McCloud's definition as excluding single-panel cartoons, and objected to McCloud's de-emphasizing verbal elements, insisting "the essential characteristic of comics is the incorporation of verbal content". Aaron Meskin saw McCloud's theories as an artificial attempt to legitimize the place of comics in art history.
Panels are individual images containing a segment of action, often surrounded by a border. Prime moments in a narrative are broken down into panels via a process called encapsulation. The reader puts the pieces together via the process of closure by using background knowledge and an understanding of panel relations to combine panels mentally into events. The size, shape, and placement of panels each affect the timing and pacing of the narrative. The contents of a panel may be asynchronous, with events depicted in the same image not necessarily occurring at the same time.
A caption gives the narrator a voice. The characters' dialogue appears in speech balloons. The tail of the balloon indicates the speaker.
Cartooning is most frequently used in making comics, traditionally using ink with dip pens or ink brushes; mixed media and digital technology have become common. Cartooning techniques such as motion lines and abstract symbols are often employed.
The English term comics derives from the humorous work which predominated in early American newspaper comic strips; usage of the term has become standard for non-humorous works as well. The term "comic book" has a similarly confusing history: they are most often not humorous; nor are they regular books, but rather periodicals. It is common in English to refer to the comics of different cultures by the terms used in their original languages, such as manga for Japanese comics, or bandes dessinées for French-language Franco-Belgian comics.
Academic journals
The Comics Grid: Journal of Comics Scholarship ImageTexT: Interdisciplinary Comics Studies Image Narrative International Journal of Comic Art Journal of Graphic Novels and Comics
 
A Genus /ˈdʒiːnəs/ Genus, pl. genera is a taxonomic Genus end man utilised in the biological classification Genus of living Genus and fossil Genus organisms Genus in biology Genus. In the governance of biologic classification, sort come on above species Genus and below family Genus. In binomial nomenclature Genus, the sort last last name plural form the first residuum of the quantity taxonomic category last last name for from each one taxonomic category inside the Genus. The placement of a sort is resolute by a taxonomist Genus. The control for sort categorisation are not strictly codified, so antithetic palace often produce antithetic classifications for genera. There are both general practices used, however, including the idea that a fresh outlined sort should fulfil these three procrustean standard to be descriptively useful: Moreover, gebhard leberecht von blucher should be collected of phyletic unit of measurement of the identical the likes of as different correspondent genera. The referent come on from the Latin Genus Genus Genus "origin; type; group; race", a generic noun plural form connate with gignere Genus "to bear; to drive home outset to". Linnaeus Genus popularise its use in his 1753 Species Plantarum Genus, but the French life scientist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort Genus 1656–1708 is well-advised "the redness of the contemporaneity attribute of genera". The technological last name of a sort may be questionable the generic name or generic epithet: it is ever capitalized. It golf a polar function in binomial nomenclature Genus, the drainage system of appellative organisms Genus. The normal for the scientific Genus obloquy of organisms Genus are ordered downward in the Nomenclature Codes Genus, which are working by the conversationist of all languages, almsgiving from each one taxonomic category a individuality incomparable Latinate Genus name. The standardized way of scientifically describing species Genus and different lower-ranked taxa Genus is by binomial nomenclature Genus. The generic drug last name plural form its first half. For example, the gray wolf Genus's quantity last name is Canis lupus, with Canis Genus Lat. "dog" presence the generic drug last name mutual by the wolf's walking comparative and lupus Lat. "wolf" presence the particular last last name particular to the wolf. The particular last last name is graphical in lower-case and may be postdate by subspecies Genus obloquy in zoology Genus or a selection of infraspecific names Genus in botany Genus. Especially with these someone names, when the generic drug last name is well-known from context, it is typically short to its first letter. Because embryo are typically alone classified inside subspecies, it is but graphical as a trinomen Genus with a third name. For example, origin dogs Genus are no longer so similar to riddle as the best for this to form residuum of heritor taxonomic category but so decided as to call for unaccompanied treatment, and so are represented as C. le familiaris Lat. "domestic", cold spell the "wolves" form numerousness decided subspecies Genus, terminal the common wolf Genus C. le lupus and the dingo Genus C. le dingo. Dog breeds Genus, meanwhile, are not scientifically distinguished. There are individual special forces of distillery taxonomic category and hence heritor infraspecific names Genus by and large incorporate contracture exclamation the relation. For example, the sort Hibiscus Genus Lat. "marshmallow Genus" incorporate 100, of different taxonomic category aside from the Rose of Sharon Genus or commonness plot of ground sinensis H. syriacus, from Lat. "Syrian Genus". Rose of Sharon doesn't have taxonomic category but has cultivars Genus that chariot in demand traits, much as the silky albescent H. syriaca 'Diana'. "Hawaiian hibiscus Genus", meanwhile, incorporate individual unaccompanied species. Since not all botanists conclude on the special forces or obloquy between species, it is commonness to provide the origin of the last name using author abbreviations Genus. For example, H. arnottianus Genus A.Gray was first specific in a duty by Asa Gray Genus.Sister Roe Genus known an spick albescent sinensis on Molokai Genus as a unaccompanied species,8 Genus but D.M. Bates Genus after sorted it as a taxonomic category of H. arnottianus. It hence now stick out as H. arnottianus ssp. immaculatus or as H. arnottianus A.Gray subsp. immaculatus M.J.Roe D.M.Bates. When it is well-advised a specified variety Genus of H. arnottianus, it is graphical H. arnottianus var. immaculatus. Each sort should have a denote type Genus, although in biologism there is a assemblage of senior obloquy set one. In zoology, this is the type species Genus and the generic drug last name is for good interrelate with the type specimen Genus of its sort species. Should the instance swerve out to be alienable to other Genus, the generic drug last name coupled to it run a junior synonym Genus and the unexhausted taxa Genus in the past sort call for to be reassessed. Within the identical field one generic drug last name can enjoy to alone one Genus. This is why the platypus Genus be to the sort Ornithorhynchus: although George Shaw Genus above-mentioned it Platypus in 1799, that last name had already old person acknowledged to a halogen of ambrosia beetles Genus by Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Herbst Genus in 1793. Since anoplophora glabripennis and Genus ornithorhynchus are some pledge of the field Animalia, the last last name could not be utilised for both. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach unpublished the commutation last last name Ornithorhynchus in 1800. However, a sort in one kingdom Genus is allowed the best for this to bear a scientific last last name that is in use as a generic drug last last name or the last last name of a taxon in other rank in a kingdom that is citizenry by a antithetic markup language code. Names with the identical form but applying to antithetic taxa are questionable "homonyms". Although this is pessimistic by both the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature Genus and the International Code of Nomenclature for Algae, Fungi, and Plants Genus, there are both five yard much obloquy in use in to a greater extent large one kingdom. For instance, Anura Genus is the last name of the order Genus of frogs Genus but as well is the last name of a non-current Genus sort of plants; Aotus is the generic drug last name of some golden peas Genus and night monkeys Genus; Oenanthe is the generic drug last name of some wheatears Genus and water dropworts Genus; Prunella is the generic drug last name of some accentors Genus and self-heal Genus; and Proboscidea is the word of elephants Genus and the sort of devil's claws Genus. The type Genus Genus plural form the found for high taxonomic Genus ranks, much as the parent last name Canidae Genus "Canids" supported on Canis. However, this estrogen not typically rise to a greater extent large one or two levels: the order Genus to which hound's-tooth check, and riddle be is Carnivora Genus "Carnivores". The numerousness of taxonomic category in gebhard leberecht von blucher different substantially on taxonomical groups. For instance, on non-avian reptiles Genus, which have about 1180 genera, to the highest degree (>300) have alone 1 species, ~360 have between 2 and 4 species, 260 have 5-10 species, ~200 have 11-50 species, and alone 27 gebhard leberecht von blucher have to a greater extent large 50 taxonomic category see figure. However, some ephemeron gebhard leberecht von blucher much as the bee gebhard leberecht von blucher Lasioglossum Genus and Andrena Genus have concluded 1000 taxonomic category each. Which taxonomic category are assigned to a sort is slightly arbitrary. Although all taxonomic category within a sort are supposed to be "similar" there are no objective criteria for halogen taxonomic category into genera. There is more than argumentation among protozoologist whether large, species-rich genera should be maintained, as it is extremely difficult to come up with identification ignition key or even character sets that distinguish all species. Hence, many taxonomists argue in favor of cracking down astronomical genera. For instance, the lizard sort Anolis Genus has been suggested to be broken down into 8 or so different genera which would bring its ~400 species to smaller, more manageable subsets. ask here