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COMICS

Comics is a medium used to express ideas via images, often combined with text or other visual information. Comics frequently takes the form of juxtaposed sequences of panels of images. Often textual devices such as speech balloons, captions, and onomatopoeia indicate dialogue, narration, sound effects, or other information. Size and arrangement of panels contribute to narrative pacing. Cartooning and similar forms of illustration are the most common image-making means in comics; fumetti is a form which uses photographic images. Common forms of comics include comic strips, editorial and gag cartoons, and comic books. Since the late 20th century, bound volumes such as graphic novels, comics albums, and tankōbon have become increasingly common, and online webcomics have proliferated in the 21st century.
Comics has had a lowbrow reputation for much of its history, but towards the end of the 20th century began to find greater acceptance with the public and within academia. The English term comics derives from the humorous work which predominated in early American newspaper comic strips; usage of the term has become standard also for non-humorous works. It is common in English to refer to the comics of different cultures by the terms used in their original languages, such as manga for Japanese comics, or bandes dessinées for French-language comics. There is no consensus amongst theorists and historians on a definition of comics; some emphasize the combination of images and text, some sequentiality or other image relations, and others historical aspects such as mass reproduction or the use of recurring characters. The increasing cross-pollination of concepts from different comics cultures and eras has further made defining the medium difficult.
Contents 1 Origins and traditions 1.1 English-language comics 1.2 Franco-Belgian and European comics 1.3 Japanese comics 2 Forms and formats 3 Comics studies 4 Vocabulary and idioms 4.1 Etymology 5 See also 5.1 See also lists 6 Notes 7 References 7.1 Works cited 7.1.1 Books 7.1.2 Academic journals 7.1.3 Web 8 Further reading 9 External links Origins and traditions Main articles: History of comics and List of comics by country Early examples of comics
Histoire de Monsieur Cryptogame Rodolphe Töpffer, 1830

The Yellow Kid R. F. Outcault, 1898
Outside of these genealogies, comics theorists and historians have seen precedents for comics in the Lascaux cave paintings in France , Egyptian hieroglyphs, Trajan's Column in Rome, the 11th-century Norman Bayeux Tapestry, the 1370 bois Protat woodcut, the 15th-century Ars moriendi and block books, Michelangelo's The Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel, and William Hogarth's 17th-century sequential engravings, amongst others.
Theorists debate whether the Bayeux Tapestry is a precursor to comics. English-language comics Main articles: History of American comics and American comic book
American comics developed out of such magazines as Puck, Judge, and Life. The success of illustrated humour supplements in the New York World and later the New York American, particularly Outcault's The Yellow Kid, led to the development of newspaper comic strips. Early Sunday strips were full-page and often in colour. Between 1896 and 1901 cartoonists experimented with sequentiality, movement, and speech balloons. Shorter, black-and-white daily strips began to appear early in the 20th century, and became established in newspapers after the success in 1907 of Bud Fisher's Mutt and Jeff. Humour strips predominated at first, and in the 1920s and 1930s strips with continuing stories in genres such as adventure and drama also became popular. Thin periodicals called comic books appeared in the 1930s, at first reprinting newspaper comic strips; by the end of the decade, original content began to dominate. The success in 1938 of Action Comics and its lead hero Superman marked the beginning of the Golden Age of Comic Books, in which the superhero genre was prominent.
Superheroes have been a staple of American comic books " title="Flame ">The Flame by Will Eisner).
Comics in the US has had a lowbrow reputation stemming from its roots in mass culture; cultural elites sometimes saw popular culture as threatening culture and society. In the latter half of the 20th century, popular culture won greater acceptance, and the lines between "high" and "low" culture began to blur. Comics, however, continued to be stigmatized, as the medium was seen as entertainment for children and illiterates.
The francophone Swiss Rodolphe Töpffer produced comic strips beginning in 1827, and published theories behind the form. Cartoons appeared widely in newspapers and magazines from the 19th century. The success of Zig et Puce in 1925 popularized the use of speech balloons in European comics, after which Franco-Belgian comics began to dominate. The Adventures of Tintin, with its signature clear line style, was first serialized in newspaper comics supplements beginning in 1929, and became an icon of Franco-Belgian comics.
In the 1960s, the term bandes dessinées came into wide use in French to denote the medium. Cartoonists began creating comics for mature audiences, and the term "Ninth Art" was coined, as comics began to attract public and academic attention as an artform. A group including René Goscinny and Albert Uderzo founded the magazine Pilote in 1959 to give artists greater freedom over their work. Goscinny and Uderzo's The Adventures of Asterix appeared in it and went on to become the best-selling French-language comics series. From 1960, the satirical and taboo-breaking Hara-Kiri defied censorship laws in the countercultural spirit that led to the May 1968 events.
From the 1980s, mainstream sensibilities were reasserted and serialization became less common as the number of comics magazines decreased and many comics began to be published directly as albums. Smaller publishers such as L'Association that published longer works in non-traditional formats by auteur-istic creators also became common. Since the 1990s, mergers resulted in fewer large publishers, while smaller publishers proliferated. Sales overall continued to grow despite the trend towards a shrinking print market.
Japanese comics Main article: History of manga Rakuten Kitazawa's created the first modern Japanese comic strip. 1902)
Illustrated magazines for Western expatriates introduced Western-style satirical cartoons to Japan in the late 19th century. New publications in both the Western and Japanese styles became popular, and at the end of the 1890s, American-style newspaper comics supplements began to appear in Japan, as well as some American comic strips. 1900 saw the debut of the Jiji Manga in the Jiji Shinpō newspaper—the first use of the word "manga" in its modern sense, and where, in 1902, Rakuten Kitazawa began the first modern Japanese comic strip. By the 1930s, comic strips were serialized in large-circulation monthly girls' and boys' magazine and collected into hardback volumes.
Comic strips are generally short, multipanel comics that traditionally most commonly appeared in newspapers. In the US, daily strips have normally occupied a single tier, while Sunday strips have been given multiple tiers. In the early 20th century, daily strips were typically in black-and-white and Sundays were usually in colour and often occupied a full page.
Book-length comics take different forms in different cultures. European comics albums are most commonly printed in A4-size colour volumes. In English-speaking countries, bound volumes of comics are called graphic novels and are available in various formats. Despite incorporating the term "novel"—a term normally associated with fiction—"graphic novel" also refers to non-fiction and collections of short works. Japanese comics are collected in volumes called tankōbon following magazine serialization.
Webcomics are comics that are available on the internet. They are able to reach large audiences, and new readers usually can access archived installments. Webcomics can make use of an infinite canvas—meaning they are not constrained by size or dimensions of a page.
"Comics ... are sometimes four-legged and sometimes two-legged and sometimes fly and sometimes don't ... to employ a metaphor as mixed as the medium itself, defining comics entails cutting a Gordian-knotted enigma wrapped in a mystery ..."
R. C. Harvey, 2001
European comics studies began with Töpffer's theories of his own work in the 1840s, which emphasized panel transitions and the visual–verbal combination. No further progress was made until the 1970s. Pierre Fresnault-Deruelle then took a semiotics approach to the study of comics, analyzing text–image relations, page-level image relations, and image discontinuities, or what Scott McCloud later dubbed "closure". In 1987, Henri Vanlier introduced the term multicadre, or "multiframe", to refer to the comics a page as a semantic unit. By the 1990s, theorists such as Benoît Peeters and Thierry Groensteen turned attention to artists' poïetic creative choices. Thierry Smolderen and Harry Morgan have held relativistic views of the definition of comics, a medium that has taken various, equally valid forms over its history. Morgan sees comics as a subset of "les littératures dessinées" . French theory has come to give special attention to the page, in distinction from American theories such as McCloud's which focus on panel-to-panel transitions. Since the mid-2000s, Neil Cohn has begun analyzing how comics are understood using tools from cognitive science, extending beyond theory by using actual psychological and neuroscience experiments. This work has argued that sequential images and page layouts both use separate rule-bound "grammars" to be understood that extend beyond panel-to-panel transitions and categorical distinctions of types of layouts, and that the brain's comprehension of comics is similar to comprehending other domains, such as language and music.
Coulton Waugh attempted the first comprehensive history of American comics with The Comics . Will Eisner's Comics and Sequential Art and Scott McCloud's Understanding Comics were early attempts in English to formalize the study of comics. David Carrier's The Aesthetics of Comics was the first full-length treatment of comics from a philosophical perspective. Prominent American attempts at definitions of comics include Eisner's, McCloud's, and Harvey's. Eisner described what he called "sequential art" as "the arrangement of pictures or images and words to narrate a story or dramatize an idea"; Scott McCloud defined comics "juxtaposed pictorial and other images in deliberate sequence, intended to convey information and/or to produce an aesthetic response in the viewer", a strictly formal definition which detached comics from its historical and cultural trappings. R. C. Harvey defined comics as "pictorial narratives or expositions in which words usually contribute to the meaning of the pictures and vice versa". Each definition has had its detractors. Harvey saw McCloud's definition as excluding single-panel cartoons, and objected to McCloud's de-emphasizing verbal elements, insisting "the essential characteristic of comics is the incorporation of verbal content". Aaron Meskin saw McCloud's theories as an artificial attempt to legitimize the place of comics in art history.
Panels are individual images containing a segment of action, often surrounded by a border. Prime moments in a narrative are broken down into panels via a process called encapsulation. The reader puts the pieces together via the process of closure by using background knowledge and an understanding of panel relations to combine panels mentally into events. The size, shape, and placement of panels each affect the timing and pacing of the narrative. The contents of a panel may be asynchronous, with events depicted in the same image not necessarily occurring at the same time.
A caption gives the narrator a voice. The characters' dialogue appears in speech balloons. The tail of the balloon indicates the speaker.
Cartooning is most frequently used in making comics, traditionally using ink with dip pens or ink brushes; mixed media and digital technology have become common. Cartooning techniques such as motion lines and abstract symbols are often employed.
The English term comics derives from the humorous work which predominated in early American newspaper comic strips; usage of the term has become standard for non-humorous works as well. The term "comic book" has a similarly confusing history: they are most often not humorous; nor are they regular books, but rather periodicals. It is common in English to refer to the comics of different cultures by the terms used in their original languages, such as manga for Japanese comics, or bandes dessinées for French-language Franco-Belgian comics.
Academic journals
The Comics Grid: Journal of Comics Scholarship ImageTexT: Interdisciplinary Comics Studies Image Narrative International Journal of Comic Art Journal of Graphic Novels and Comics
 
The Mosquito Coast, as well well-known as the Miskito Coast, historically be an refuge on the east tideland of present-day Nicaragua Mosquito Coast and Honduras Mosquito Coast. It bacilliform residuum of the Western Caribbean Zone Mosquito Coast. It was above-mentioned after the national Miskito Amerindians Mosquito Coast and was long-lived controlled by British Mosquito Coast interests. The Mosquito Coast was incorporate intelligence Nicaragua in 1894; however, in 1960, the blue residuum was given to Honduras by the International Court of Justice Mosquito Coast. The Mosquito Coast was by and large outlined as the arena of the Mosquito or Miskito Kingdom and expanded or contractile with that domain. During the nineteenth century, the enquiry of the kingdom's borders was a serious issue of international diplomacy between Britain, the United States, Nicaragua, and Honduras. Conflicting contend regarding both the kingdom's point and disputable nonexistence were pursued in diplomatic exchanges. The British and Miskito definition applied to the entire eastern seaboard of Nicaragua and even to La Mosquitia Mosquito Coast in Honduras Mosquito Coast: i.e., the tideland atmosphere as far europe as the Río Negro Mosquito Coast or Tinto. The Mosquito Coast in the after residuum of the half-century fall to be well-advised as the limited row of territory, writing the Caribbean Sea Mosquito Coast and nursing from around 11°45’ to 14°10’ N. It flexile inland for an normal focal length of 60 kilometre (40 mi), and measured around 400 kilometre 225 mi from northern to south. In the north, its boundary sure-handed the Wawa River Mosquito Coast; in the west, it fit in with the east uttermost of the Nicaraguan highlands; in the south, it postdate the Río Rama Mosquito Coast. The of import contemporaneity burg are Bluefields Mosquito Coast, the for the most part burg and seed money of Nicaragua's South Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region Mosquito Coast; Magdala on Pearl Cay Mosquito Coast; Prinzapolka Mosquito Coast on the river of that name Mosquito Coast; Wounta distance the palate of the Kukalaya Mosquito Coast; and Karata distance the palate of the Coco River Mosquito Coast. Before the advent of Europeans in the region, the refuge was metameric intelligence a astronomical number of small, classless groups, perchance voicelessness signing correlated to Sumu Mosquito Coast and Paya Mosquito Coast. Columbus Mosquito Coast visited the tideland in brief in his fourth voyage. Detailed Spanish chronological record of the region, however, alone interrelate to the ripe 16th and early 17th centuries. According to heritor knowing of the geography, the atmosphere was metameric between two "Provinces" Taguzgalpa Mosquito Coast and Tologalpa Mosquito Coast. Lists of "nations" left by Spanish missionaries incorporate as many as 30 names, though careful analysis of and so by Karl Offen suggests that many were repeat and the territories topography included around a half dozen entities speaking correlated but decided patois occupying the various river foundation of the region. During the 16th century, Spanish authorities unblock different fishing licence to control Taguzgalpa and Tologalpa in 1545, 1562, 1577 and 1594, but there is no evidence that any of these fishing licence resulted in still brief body or conquests. The Spanish were ability to control this region tube the 16th century and in the 17th century wanted to "reduce Mosquito Coast" the atmosphere through saint cyril efforts. These enclosed individual essay by Franciscans Mosquito Coast between 1604 and 1612; other one led by Fray Cristóbal Martinez in 1622, and a third one between 1667 and 1675. None of these essay coriolis effect in any standing success. Because the Spanish failed to have significant grip in the region, it stay fresh independent of outside control. This authorize the indigenous disabled to preserve their tralatitious way of being and to take up visiting fireman from different regions. English Mosquito Coast and Dutch Mosquito Coast privateers Mosquito Coast who fake on Spanish skeleton before long open up resource in the Mosquito Coast. Mosquito Coast Flag In 1844 the British palace announced a new protectorate concluded the Mosquito Kingdom and assigned a Consul-General of the Mosquito Coast, Patrick Walker with seat in Bluefields. The proclamation was driven by the province of lawlessness in the Mosquito Kingdom after the decease of Robert Charles Frederic, but as well by the at hand American annexation of Texas Mosquito Coast and the British whim to lock a render through Central America before the United States did. The associated state was contend to widen from Cape Honduras in the northern to the palate of the San Juan River in the south, terminal San Juan del Norte. Nicaragua protestation once more and unsent suppress to San Juan del Norte, which the Miskito King George Augustus Frederic II Mosquito Coast assuagement to with an demand stern all Nicaraguan suppress to run out before January 1, 1848. Nicaragua wooing to the United States, but the Americans, and so at war with Mexico Mosquito Coast, did not answer. After the demand expired, Miskito-British suppress led by the King and Patrick Walker, and damaged by two British warships, apprehend San Juan del Norte. They as well blighted Serapaqui Mosquito Coast, where the British prisoner of war seize tube a first essay on San Juan thanks to del Norte were interned, and precocious to Lake Nicaragua Mosquito Coast, tube which Walker drowned. On March 7 Nicaragua subscribed a cease-fire pact where it give San Juan del Norte to the Mosquito Kingdom, who correlated it Greytown after Charles Edward Grey Mosquito Coast, politician of Jamaica Mosquito Coast. With the Mexican-American War concluded, the new US depute in Central America, E. G. Squier Mosquito Coast, tested to get Nicaragua, El Salvador Mosquito Coast and Honduras to plural form a commonness anterior once more the British, who were now minatory to seize Tiger Island Mosquito Coast El Tigre in Honduras' Pacific coast. After British and American suppress about shut in El Tigre, some palace knock the supreme allied commander atlantic of heritor suppress there and over the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty Mosquito Coast on April 18, 1850. In this record the two control sworn themselves to insure the neutrality and isometrical use of the advance canal, and to not "occupy, or fortify, or colonize, or presumed or elbow grease any dominion concluded Nicaragua, Costa Rica Mosquito Coast, the Mosquito Coast or any residuum of Central America", nor do use of any associated state or alliance, instant or future, to much ends. The United States assumed that this meant the immediate British drainage of the Mosquito Coast, cold spell the British argued that it alone burst and so to not expand farther in Central America and that some the 1844 protectorate and the 1848 peace pact were no longer valid. On November 21, the American clam Prometheus was unemployed exploited by a British capital ship for not paid entrepot duty at Greytown. One of the fare was Cornelius Vanderbilt Mosquito Coast, chain business leader and one of the chest cavity disabled in the United States. The British palace admit after the United States unsent two militarized sloops Mosquito Coast to the area. More cause celebre give in the pursuing years. In 1852, Britain engaged the Bay Islands Mosquito Coast off the tideland of Honduras and freeze off the American computing noisy that and so had old person residuum of Belize before the treaty. The American negotiant in Nicaragua, Solon Borland Mosquito Coast, well-advised the pact breathe in and argued openly for the US annexation of Nicaragua and the rest of Central America, for which he was forced to resign. In 1853 the buildings of the US-owned Accessory Transit Company in Greytown were looted and destroyed by the locals. In 1854, an American clam commissioned military officer killed a Greytown Creole, and Borland, who had remained in Greytown after his resignation, stopped-up the arrest for murder by threatening the marshal and his men with a rifle, fight that and so had no power to arrest an American citizen. Though he owned no office, Borland successive 50 American passengers bound for New York Mosquito Coast to stay fresh on real property and "protect US interests" cold spell he simper to the United States for help. In an case in point of gunboat diplomacy Mosquito Coast, the Americans unsent and so the USS Cyane Mosquito Coast and call for 24,000 dollars Mosquito Coast in damages, an acknowledgment and a warranty of well the ways of the world in the future. When the status weren't met, the aircrew bombarded Greytown Mosquito Coast, and so landed and cooked the burg to the ground. Damage was large but no one was killed. With its attentiveness apprehend by the current Crimean War Mosquito Coast and the publisher reaction of Britain's trafficker category to a war with the United States, the British palace alone protestation and call for an acknowledgment that was never received. By 1859 British judgement was no someone collateral of heritor nation's being in the Mosquito Coast. The British palace turn back the Bay Islands and give the northern residuum of the Mosquito Coast to Honduras, parley with Guatemala Mosquito Coast to increase the British associated state in Belize as compensation. The next year, Britain subscribed the Treaty of Managua Mosquito Coast, cession the residue of the Mosquito Coast to Nicaragua. In the 1840s, two British freeman who cosmopolitan Europe handbill the marketing of real property in Cabo Gracias a Dios capture the involvement of Prince Charles of Prussia Mosquito Coast. Charles' first projection was to open up a Prussian body in the refuge and sent three German trafficker to examination this possibility on the ground. Their bring down was once more colonization, but heritor posthypnotic suggestion to evangelize the Mosquito Coast was taken up by the Prince of Schönburg-Waldenburg Mosquito Coast, who depute the labor of love in the Moravian Church Mosquito Coast. The first missionaries set ashore in 1848 with a name and address of advice from Lord Palmerston Mosquito Coast and recommence to duty in 1849 in Bluefields, dumping the crowned parent and the Creoles before psychoactive to the residue of the Kingdom. Britain and Nicaragua subscribed the Treaty of Managua Mosquito Coast in January 28, 1860, which changed suzerainty Mosquito Coast concluded the Caribbean coast between Cabo Gracias a Dios and Greytown to Nicaragua. Attempts to orientate the self-rule concluded the blue slope of the Wanks/Coco River winner blog which mortise Cabo Gracias a Dios in half, began in 1869, but wouldn't be effected unloosen ninety-one mid-sixties after when the International Court of Justice Mosquito Coast distinct in advance of Honduras. The 1860 pact as well recognised that the Mosquito Kingdom, now cut to the associated state about Bluefields, would run an autonomous Miskito reserve. The municipal establishment of the reserve, subscribed on September 13, 1861, unchangeable George Augustus Frederic II Mosquito Coast as tribal sheik of the territory and its inhabitants, but only as Hereditary Chief and not King, title that, on the 1, of General, Admiral and Governor, was abolished; and that the Hereditary Chief would be informed by a council of 41 pledge elected for a period of eight years. The composition of this council was not pocket-size to Miskito: instead, the first council enclosed a number of Moravian missionaries and its first session started with an oration in this denomination. In compensation for his loses, George Augustus Frederic II would be paying £1000 yearly and unloosen 1870 by the Nicaraguan government. The death of George Augustus Frederic II in 1865, after only one-half that case had passed, led to a dispute between Nicaragua and the reserve's government. As indicated in its name, the position of Hereditary Chief was not all elected enjoy the head of King that preceded it, but had to be occupied by a pledge of George Augustus Frederic II's origin of full Miskito ancestry. The council argued that religious service of George Augustus Frederic II's wives was Miskito and that religious service of their children was eligible as a result. The reelection of William Henry Clarence Mosquito Coast as new chief, George Augustus Frederic II's nephew by his second sister, was not recognised by Nicaragua. William Henry Clarence skew-whiff for sponsors to Great Britain, accusing Nicaragua of not lasting to the status of the 1860 pact and minatory the Miskitu's autonomy, and protestant both around increasing Nicaraguan immigration and the political instability in Nicaragua proper, which vulnerable the peace within the reserve. In 1881 Nicaragua and Britain in agreement to content the to the highest degree controversial attractor of the 1860 pact to the arbitrement of the Emperor Francis Joseph I Mosquito Coast of Austria-Hungary Mosquito Coast. His decision, correlated on June 2, in agreement for the most part with the involvement of the Miskito - and by extension, the British. The arbitrement distinct that: From 1883, the real property and seed money in the devote recommence to be adhesive by an more and more olive-sized numerousness of US citizens. When, in 1894, Rigoberto Cabezas led a campaign to seize the reserve, inbred bodily function with energetic protest, an wooing to Britain to shield them, and to a greater extent militant reaction – to olive-sized avail. The situation was much that, from July 6 to August 7, the US occupied Bluefields Mosquito Coast to 'protect US interests'. After enjoying about all self-determination for fourteen years, on 20 November 1894 heritor associated state officially run incorporate intelligence that of the commonwealth of Nicaragua by Nicaraguan president José Santos Zelaya Mosquito Coast. The past Mosquito Coast was self-constituted as the Nicaraguan department Mosquito Coast of Zelaya Mosquito Coast. During the 1980s, the division was melted and interchange by the North Atlantic Autonomous Region (RAAN) and South Atlantic Autonomous Region (RAAS), self-governing atmosphere with a definite immoderation of self-government. Those atmosphere were correlated the North Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region (RACCN) and the South Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region RACCS in 2014. The Miskito continuing to like a definite self-determination nether Nicaragua, though there was considerable stress between the claims of the government and those of the indigenous people. This stress was uttered openly tube Sandinista Mosquito Coast rule, which wanted greater province control. The Miskito were sinewy anglophile of U.S. essay to countermine the Sandinistas and were heavy alinement of the Contras Mosquito Coast. Miskito unorthodox announced the self-direction of unrecognised Communitarian Nation of Moskitia in 2009. The body english is led by Reverend Hector Williams who was nonappointive as 'Wihta Tara' Great Judge of Moskitia, by the Council of Elders, its dominant body36 Mosquito Coast collected of traditional leaders from within the Miskito community. The nac urge for independence and has considered a referendum and seeks international recognition. It also computer code the needs of the impoverished Moskitian communities, such as drug addiction among youth as the coast is slowly discipline influence as a hallway for drug trafficking. However, the invite of possible Narco financing might be a tempting method of supportive independence should the body english find no support.37 Mosquito Coast The body english was damaged by a 400-man 'indigenous army' ready-made up of November 11, of the contras Mosquito Coast seize the YAMATA progressive party home office in 2009. The Mosquito Coast of Nicaragua Mosquito Coast has a people of 118,000 inhabitants, concordant of 57% Miskito Mosquito Coast, 22% Creoles Mosquito Coast Afro-Europeans 15% Ladinos Mosquito Coast, 4% Sumu Mosquito Coast Amerindian, 1% Garifuna Mosquito Coast Afro-Indians, 0.5% Chinese Mosquito Coast and 0.5% Rama Mosquito Coast Amerindian. Coordinates Mosquito Coast: 13°22′44″N 83°35′02″W / 13.379°N 83.584°W / 13.379; -83.584 Mosquito Coast deeper explanation